Proper cellular function requires efficient folding of cellular proteins. In the cell, protein folding starts co-translationally, concomitantly with protein synthesis by the ribosome, following pathways that can be distinct from the refolding of full-length proteins in vitro. The average, bulk translation rate in E. coli is -20 aa/sec, but this rate can vary by more than an order of magnitude for the translation of specific mRNA sequences. Recent results have highlighted that altering the translation rate of small portions of some genes can significantly affect the folding efficiency of the encoded protein (correct folding versus misfolding and aggregation, or degradation), or alter the partitioning between two alternative folded structures. Yet despite the potential impact of local translation rate on protein biogenesis in vivo, the interactions between the ribosome and mRNA and/or nascent chain sequences that control local translation rate remain opaque. Nor do we know what fraction of proteins in the proteome has co-translational folding mechanisms that are significantly affected by altered translation rate. The PIs of this proposal have constructed a network to span their established expertise in genetics, molecular biology, genomics, biochemistry, biophysics, and organic, analytical and physical chemistry, creating a team uniquely suited to tackle three significant outstanding questions regarding the mechanisms and outcomes of altered translation rate in E. coli. Our network will determine: (1) What specific features of mRNA and/or nascent chain sequences shape absolute local translation rate in vivo, and by what mechanisms? (2) What proteins in the proteome are most susceptible to aggregation or degradation when translation rate is altered? (3) To what extent does translational pausing alter the conformation of the ribosome and/or its interactions with other proteins in vivo? Taken together, results from this proposal will represent crucial steps towards a comprehensive picture of translation rate control in E. coli, and the effects of altered translation rate on protein biogenesis, including the heterologous expression of human proteins.